In 2017, worldwide crude steel production was up by 5.3 % year on year, reaching a total of 1691 million tonnes. 1 Much of this steel was produced using primary processes like electric arc furnaces ...

Electroslag remelting (ESR) is an advanced secondary refining technique that has become central to the production of high-quality steel. In this process, a consumable electrode is melted through a ...

The expansion of railroads and manufacturing during the late-19th century sparked strong demand for materials such as iron. However, early processes for refining crude iron ore were labor- and ...

Will disrupt a $2.4 trillion-plus market and produce commodities accounting for more than 95% of all mined materials on Earth, reshaping global supply chains, unlocking material abundance, and ...